CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY	5
INTRODUCTION	10
Context	10
What Is Already Known on This Subject?	10
Key Research Questions	12
What Does This Study Add?	13
METHODOLOGY	15
Data Sources	15
Population of Interest	15
Statistical Analysis	16
FINDINGS	20
Profile of Postsecondary Graduates	20
School-to-Work Transitions	32
Job Characteristics	49
Student Debt	58
CONCLUSIONS	67
FUTURE RESEARCH	72
APPENDICES	76
Appendix A. Definitions	76
Appendix B. Supplementary Tables	78

List of Figures
Figure 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018	21
Figure 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018 (cont.)	23
Figure 3. Disability severity, types, and number of disability types among PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years, 2018	25
Figure 4. Level of study among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, severity, and number of disability types, 2018	28
Figure 5. Field of study among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018	30
Figure 6. Proportion of PSG aged 18 to 35 years who did not complete their program of studies in the usual length of time, by reason and disability status, 2018	31
Figure 7. Labour market characteristics among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018	33
Figure 8. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by level of study and disability status, 2018	35
Figure 9. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by level of study, sex and disability status, 2018	36
Figure 10. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by sociodemographic characteristics and disability status, 2018	38
Figure 11. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by field of study and disability status, 2018	40
Figure 12. Results of Model 1, showing the associations between employment status and sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018	42
Figure 13. Results of Model 2A, showing the associations between the employment status and disability severity of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018	45
Figure 14. Results of Model 2B, showing the associations between the employment status and disability types of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018	48
Figure 15. Occupations of employed PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018	50
Figure 16. Select job characteristics among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018	52
Figure 17. Median annual earnings of PSG aged 18 to 35 years in the first job after graduation in 2015 and the job they held last week before 2018 NGS interview, by level of study and disability status	55
Figure 18. Median annual earnings of PSG aged 18 to 35 years working full-time at the time of interview, by the level of study and disability status, 2018	56
Figure 19. PSG aged 18 to 35 years with debt at graduation, by level of study and disability status, 2015	60
Figure 20. PSG aged 18 to 35 years with debt who had paid it off at time of interview, by level of study and disability status, 2018	61
Figure 21. Average debt owed by PSG aged 18 to 35 years at graduation in 2015, compared to remaining debt at the time of the 2018 interview among those who still owed, by level of study and disability status	63
Figure 22. Number of sources of funding used by PSG aged 18 to 35 years for postsecondary education, by disability status, 2018	65
Figure 23. Average debt among PSG aged 18 to 35 years for postsecondary education, by funding source and disability status, 2018	66



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
The transition from postsecondary education to employment is a pivotal stage for all graduates, but it presents distinct and often greater challenges for postsecondary graduates (PSG) with disabilities. These individuals frequently encounter systemic barriers to securing inclusive and equitable employment, limiting their full participation in the labour market.
Despite growing awareness, there remains a notable gap in research on the employment outcomes of PSG with disabilities in Canada?particularly in comparison to their PSG without disabilities. This lack of data limits the ability of policymakers to develop effective, evidence-based strategies to support this population.
Purpose of the Study
This study addresses that gap by examining the employment outcomes of PSG with disabilities in Canada, using data from the 2018 National Graduates Survey (NGS). As the first cycle of the NGS to include the Disability Screening Questions (DSQ), the 2018 NGS adopts a social model approach to identifying disability. This inclusion provides an opportunity to fill critical knowledge gaps by profiling graduates with disabilities, explore disparities in education, employment, job quality, and student debt on a nationally representative scale.
By generating new insights into the post-graduation experiences of individuals with disabilities, this research supports key national and international frameworks, including the Employment Strategy for Canadians with Disabilities, Canada?s Disability Inclusion Action Plan (DIAP), the Accessible Canada Act (ACA), and Article 27 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD). This study contributes to those efforts by offering the evidence base needed to inform more inclusive and equitable labour market policies. While policy implications are beyond the scope of this work, the findings are intended to encourage meaningful dialogue and support future discussions.

Key Findings
Profile of Postsecondary Graduates
In 2018, approximately 23% of PSG in Canada aged 18 to 35?around 75,790 individuals?reported having at least one disability.
Among these graduates, females comprised 68% of the group, compared to 55% among their counterparts without disabilities. Additionally, a smaller proportion of PSG with disabilities than those without disabilities belonged to a racialized group (22% versus 34%) or were landed immigrants (3% versus 9%).
The most commonly reported disability types were mental health-related (58%), followed by pain-related (41%) and learning (17%) disabilities.
These graduates were underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) (19% versus 25%) and business fields (19% versus 24%) relative to those without disabilities, while being overrepresented in social and behavioural sciences (21% versus 15%) and other fields of study (19% versus 15%).
School-to-Work Transitions
The employment rate for PSG with disabilities was 86%, slightly lower than the 90% observed among those without disabilities.
Employment gaps between PSG with and without disabilities were more pronounced among specific subgroups, including naturalized citizens (13 percentage point gap), graduates belonged to a racialized group (7 p.p.), graduates in ?other? fields (7 p.p.), French-only speakers (6 p.p.), and residents of Ontario and Quebec, each with a 5 p.p. gap.
A multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that PSG with disabilities had 20% lower odds of employment compared to their peers without disabilities, even after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics (odds ratio [OR] = 0.8, 95% CI: 0.66?0.96).

Among PSG with disabilities, employment outcomes varied by disability type. Those with mobility impairments had 64% lower odds of employment (OR = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.14?0.92), while those with mental health-related disabilities had 40% lower odds (OR = 0.60, 95% CI: 0.40?0.89), compared to PSG with disabilities who did not report these specific types.
Job Characteristics
PSG with disabilities were more likely than those without disabilities to work in part-time (14% versus 9%) or non-permanent jobs (23% versus 18%). They were also more likely to be overqualified for their jobs (30% versus 23%), to work in roles unrelated to their field of study (28% versus 21%), and to report job dissatisfaction (12% versus 5%).
Median annual earnings for PSG with disabilities were consistently lower than those of their counterparts without disabilities. In their first job after graduating in 2015, they earned a median of $29,037, compared to $31,180 for those without disabilities.ÿBy 2018, this gap persisted, with median earnings of $44,991 versus $49,988 for PSG with disabilities and those without disabilities, respectively. Among full-time workers, the difference in median earnings remained notable: $47,855 for those with disabilities compared to $51,989 for their peers without disabilities in 2018.
Student Debt
PSG with disabilities were more likely than those without disabilities to carry student debt at the time of graduation in 2015 (63% versus 51%) and less likely to have repaid it by 2018 (29% versus 38%).
They also relied more heavily on multiple sources of funding for their postsecondary education, with 77% using three or more sources compared to 70% of those without disabilities.
On average, debt reduction was slightly lower among PSG with disabilities, decreasing from $24,099 to $20,432 (a reduction of $3,677) between 2015 and 2018, compared to a reduction from $23,496 to $19,402 (a reduction of $4,094) among those without disabilities.
Conclusions
This study, in addition to profiling PSG with disabilities, provides new evidence on the factors that shape successful school-to-work transitions. The findings reinforce known predictors of employment success and offer deeper insights into the conditions influencing labour market outcomes?particularly job quality and earnings?as well as related issues such as student debt.
The analysis confirms that PSG with disabilities face notable disparities compared to their peers without disabilities. These gaps span employment rates, job quality, earnings, and student debt repayment, and are especially pronounced for certain subgroups:
* Employment ? PSG with disabilities were less likely to be employed than their counterparts without disabilities, even after accounting for differences in other sociodemographic characteristics. Among PSG with disabilities, the likelihood of employment varied by disability type. Most notably, graduates with mobility or mental health-related disabilities had lower odds of employment relative to PSG with disabilities who did not report these specific types. This underscores the need for tailored supports that reflect the diversity within the disability community.
* Earnings and job quality ? Among those who were employed, PSG with disabilities had lower median annual earnings than their peers without disabilities. They were also more likely to work in part-time or non-permanent positions, to be overqualified, to hold jobs unrelated to their field of study, and to report lower job satisfaction ?suggesting that, when employed, they might be accessing lower-quality jobs compared to their counterparts without disabilities.
* Field of study ? The underrepresentation of PSG with disabilities in high-opportunity fields such as STEM and business, along with their higher representation in areas such as social and behavioural sciences, may be a contributing factor to disparities in earnings and career advancement?though the extent of this relationship warrants further exploration.
* Student debt and funding sources ? These graduates were more likely to carry student debt, less likely to have repaid it, and more dependent on multiple funding sources than graduates without disabilities. These financial pressures may further hinder their long-term economic inclusion.
Future Research
While this study provides valuable insights through the 2018 NGS, it also brings to light several important areas where further research is needed. These areas are discussed in detail at the end of this report.


INTRODUCTION
Context
The school-to-work transition is a crucial period for all postsecondary education graduates (PSG), but it can be particularly challenging for those with disabilities. Persons with disabilities often face a variety of accessibility barriers, including issues with the built and social environments, work role norms, attitudinal biases, and accommodation challenges, which can prevent them from reaching their full potential (Gillies, 2012; Perri et al., 2021).1,2 These barriers hinder the realization of equal opportunities for work outlined in Article 27 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) (ESDC, 2024; United Nation, 2006),3,4 and Canada?s Disability Inclusion Action Plan (DIAP) (ESDC, 2022).5 Increasing employment rate among graduates with disabilities and closing the employment and earnings gap between them and their peers without disabilities is vital for fostering a more inclusive society (ESDC, 2024).6 
What Is Already Known on This Subject?
A review of the literature shows that PSG with disabilities frequently encounter obstacles in obtaining accessible jobs, which further limits their participation in the competitive labour market. Accessibility barriers can manifest in different forms and affect PSG with disabilities in a variety of situations. Some examples include attitudinal barriers, physically inaccessible workplaces, lack of inclusive recruitment practices (EARN, 2020),7 lack of structured support, and lack of work experience (CERIV, 2019; ESDC, 2016).8,9
Accessibility barriers hinder equal participation in the workforce leading to lower employment rates, earnings and other outcomes among persons with disabilities compared to their peers without disabilities. For instance, one study indicated that long after graduation, Ontario postsecondary education graduates with disabilities experience labour market outcomes that are less favorable across most measures (Chatoor, 2021).10 These barriers not only affect characteristics of employment immediately after graduation, but also impact long-term career progression, job satisfaction, and overall quality of life for PSG with disabilities.
Job satisfaction among individuals with disabilities who are working tends to be lower compared to their counterparts without disabilities. Research shows that, even after accounting for differences in demographic and workplace characteristics, workers with disabilities are significantly less likely to report high levels of job satisfaction. A key factor contributing to this disparity is the perceived lack of respect and inclusion in the workplace, which has been shown to explain a substantial portion of the difference in satisfaction levels (Brooks, 2019).11
The literature also emphasizes that the quality of jobs available to persons with disabilities is often lower, characterized by lower job security, fewer benefits, and limited opportunities for advancement. Research by the Conference Board of Canada (2018)12 found that persons with disabilities were more likely to be employed in part-time positions and less likely to have access to employer-sponsored health insurance and retirement plans. These factors contribute to lower overall job quality, making it challenging for persons with disabilities to achieve job stability and to advance in their careers.
Income disparities among persons with disabilities are closely linked to their employment opportunities, as limited access to quality jobs often leads to lower income, exacerbating economic challenges (Blanck et al., 2024).13 Findings from the 2022 Canadian Survey on Disability (CSD) demonstrate that among working-age adults (aged 25 to 64 years), those with disabilities had a lower median after-tax income ($38,810) than those without disabilities ($46,080) (H‚bert et al., 2024).14 This income gap between person with and without disabilities can be attributed to multiple factors including the work schedule, permanent or temporary status, union status, average usual hours worked, and levels of education (McDiarmid, 2023).15
Key Research Questions
A noticeable research gap exists concerning the employment outcomes of post-secondary graduates (PSG) with disabilities in Canada, particularly in comparison to their peers without disabilities. To address this gap, the study is guided by four key research questions:
1. What are the sociodemographic and disability-related characteristics of PSG with disabilities compared to those without disabilities?
2. How likely are PSG with disabilities to transition from school to work compared to their counterparts without disabilities, and what factors influence their labour force participation?
3. How do job characteristics and earnings differ between PSG with and without disabilities?
4. How do student debt levels, repayment status, and funding sources compare between PSG with and without disabilities?
What Does This Study Add?
This study aims to bridge the research gap on employment outcomes of post-secondary graduates (PSG) with disabilities in Canada. It addresses that gap by leveraging the nationally representative 2018 NGS?the first cycle to include the Disability Screening Questions (DSQ)?enabling a social model approach to identifying disability. This provides a unique opportunity to generate new insights into the post-graduation experiences of individuals with disabilities. The study is structured into four main sections:
* Profile of PSG with disabilities: This section provides information about the characteristics of disabilities among PSG, including the type, severity, and number of co-occurring disabilities. It also compares the sociodemographic characteristics of PSG with disabilities to those without disabilities.
* School-to-work transition: This section examines the transition from school to work for PSG with disabilities, analyzing sociodemographic characteristics associated with their transition to employment and comparing them to those without disabilities.
* Job characteristics: This section focuses on the job characteristics and earnings of PSG with disabilities compared to those without disabilities, including employment type, job permanency, field-of-study alignment, overqualification, and job satisfaction.
* Student debt: This section explores disparities in student debt, including the percentage of graduates with debt at graduation, repayment status at the time of the NGS interview, average debt amounts, and sources of funding used for postsecondary education.
By addressing these areas, the study offers a comprehensive understanding of the post-secondary-to-employment pathway for graduates with disabilities, informing more equitable labour market policies. It aligns with the objectives of Canada?s Disability Inclusion Action Plan (DIAP) (ESDC, 2022)16, the Accessible Canada Act (ACA), and the Employment Strategy for Canadians with Disabilities (ESDC, 2024).17 Specifically, the DIAP prioritizes improving employment outcomes and financial security for persons with disabilities; the ACA mandates the identification and removal of barriers in employment and education; and the Employment Strategy promotes inclusive workplaces and enhanced labour market participation. This study supports these goals by providing nationally representative evidence on employment disparities, job quality, and student debt among graduates with disabilities.
This report presents a clear and comprehensive picture of the experiences of PSG with disabilities across key areas such as education, employment, income, and debt. Grounded in robust data, it serves as a valuable resource for stakeholders by shedding light on disparities and fostering informed dialogue. Although policy implications are beyond the scope of this work, the evidence presented is intended to spark meaningful discussion and support future conversations.


METHODOLOGY
Data Sources
The 2018 NGS targeted graduates living in Canada who completed their programs in 2015 at recognized Canadian postsecondary institutions. The survey excluded graduates from private postsecondary institutions, those who completed continuing-education programs (unless it led to a diploma or degree), graduates in apprenticeship programs, and those living outside of Canada at the time of the survey (Statistics Canada, 2018).18 Appendix A provides more details about the definitions used in this study.
Although the NGS has collected data on PSG in Canada for over four decades, the 2018 cycle is the first to include the DSQ. These questions identify persons with disabilities based on the social model of disability, which views disability as the result of interactions between functional limitations and environmental barriers (Grondin et al., 2016).19 Therefore, the data from the 2018 NGS provides an excellent opportunity to examine the demographic and employment characteristics of PSG with disabilities. For more information, see the National Graduates Survey: Detailed information for 2018 (class of 2015) (Statistics Canada, 2018).20
Population of Interest
After graduating in 2015, PSG followed different paths: some found employment, others pursued further education, while some remained unemployed or out of the labour market. To understand the school-to-work transition and employment outcomes for PSG with disabilities, we considered the following:
First, the study focuses on PSG young adults who were between 18 and 35 years old at the time of graduation. The lower bound of 18 includes Quebec PSG, who graduate a year earlier from high school. The upper bound of 35 excludes older graduates, ensuring a focus on young adults transitioning from education to the labor market and maintaining a homogeneous sample of the graduate population.
Second, PSG who were attending school, college, CEGEP,21 or university the week before the 2018 NGS interview were excluded. While further education is not considered a negative outcome, this approach ensures a more focused analysis of employment outcomes among those who had completed their studies. Appendix B provides more details about population of interest.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to estimate the prevalence of disability among PSG, as well as their school-to-work transitions, job characteristics, and student debt. This article examines various factors that may significantly impact employment for PSG, including disability status, sociodemographic characteristics, educational attainment, and field of study. Non-overlapping 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to make conservative statements about significant differences between point estimates.
Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the association between employment status (employed/not employed) and common sociodemographic factors among PSG. When assessing employment differences between PSG with and without disabilities, it's important to consider their unique sociodemographic characteristics. The unadjusted employment rates provided in the descriptive analysis may reflect gaps due to concentrations of graduates in certain subgroups. Accounting for these potentially confounding variables via regression modeling helps clarify the factors associated with employment status. More specifically, the models included a comprehensive set of characteristics?such as sex, region, level and field of study, belonging to a racialized group,22 Indigenous identity,23 language, and citizenship status. While earlier stages of the analysis introduced these variables individually, the final models included them simultaneously. This approach allows for a clearer interpretation of each factor?s unique contribution to employment outcomes. The outcome of interest was whether participants were employed three years after graduation (yes/no) in the week before the survey interview. Two logistic regression models were developed to identify key factors associated with employment odds three years after graduation among young PSG.
* Model 1 included all PSG (i.e., both PSG with and without disabilities). The purpose of this model was to determine whether graduates with disabilities were more or less likely to be employed compared to their peers without disabilities, after controlling for the sociodemographic characteristics described above. Additionally, it aimed to identify the key predictors of employment among all PSG, including those with and without disabilities.
* Model 2A focused exclusively on PSG with disabilities and examined the relationship between employment status, various individual characteristics (as noted in Model 1), and disability severity. In this model, disability type was not included. Since the severity variable captures the combined impact of all ten disability types, including both severity and individual disability type variables in the same model would introduce multicollinearity and compromise the reliability of the estimates. To address this, the specific effects of each disability type were analyzed separately in Model 2B, which excludes the severity variable but controls for all other covariates.
* Model 2B focused exclusively on PSG with disabilities. This model identified associations between employment status and disability types, after controlling for other characteristics. Given that 71% of persons with disabilities have two or more co-occurring disability types (H‚bert et al., 2024),24 the effect of each disability type must be determined while the effects of all other disability types are controlled for. In this model, the likelihood of employment for PSG with disabilities was examined when considering all 10 disability types as predictors and controlling for other covariates.
Findings were reported using Odds Ratio (OR) and their 95% CIs. An odds ratio represents the ratio of the odds of an event occurring (i.e., being employed) for one group compared to the odds of the same event occurring for a reference group. Accordingly, an odds ratio indicates the difference in odds of employment after accounting for the full set of predictors included in the model. This could point to no difference in odds (OR = 1), higher odds for a given group compared to a reference group (OR > 1), or lower odds for a given group compared to a reference group (OR < 1).
All analyses were conducted using weighted data, so the estimates represent the PSG in the Canadian population. Person-level survey weights and 1,000 bootstrap weights created specifically for disability-related analysis were used to achieve population representativeness and to estimate sampling variance. The bootstrapping technique was used to estimate variance and CIs to account for the complex survey design.
Regarding the quality of estimates, according to the 2018 NGS User Guide, if the number of graduates (unweighted) contributing to the calculation of a given estimate is less than 5, the weighted estimate is considered of unacceptable quality and cannot be published. Estimates with a coefficient of variation greater than 35% are accompanied by a ?use with caution? note. For each analysis, only non-missing observations are included,25 and all estimates were subject to rounding. Analyses were conducted in SAS v9.4 (Statistics Canada, 2018).26 

FINDINGS
Profile of Postsecondary Graduates
This section provides an overview of key demographic characteristics of PSG with disabilities compared to those without disabilities. We examine factors such as sex, level of study, region (primary region of residence at the time of the 2018 NGS interview), belonging to a racialized group, Indigenous identity, language spoken most often at home, citizenship status, and field of study. Additionally, we provide information on disability characteristics including severity, disability types, and the number of co-occurring disabilities. Finally, we offer data on the proportion of PSG who did not complete their 2015 program within the usual timeframe, categorized by reasons and disability status.
More than one in five PSG aged 18 to 35 years have a disability 
In 2022, 23.2% of PSG aged 18 to 35 years in Canada had one or more disabilities, representing nearly 75,790 people. When examining the disability rate in this age group by sex, a higher proportion of females (27%) had disabilities compared to males (18%). Among PSG with disabilities, females far outnumbered males, with 51,220 (68%) females versus 24,570 (32%) males (Figure 1).
More than four in ten PSG with disabilities are located in Ontario
At the time of the 2018 NGS interview, PSG with disabilities were more likely to reside in Ontario (45% versus 41%), the Western provinces and territories (30% versus 28%), and the Atlantic provinces (7% versus 6%) compared to those without disabilities. However, they were less likely to live in Quebec (18% versus 25%) (Figure 1).
About one in five PSG with disabilities identify as belonging to a racialized group
PGS with disabilities were less likely to identify as belonging to a racialized group, compared to PGS without disabilities (22% versus 34%) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018
  
* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Region of primary residence at time of interview.
3. The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
4. Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS.
5. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.
PSG with disabilities are less likely than those without disabilities to speak only French at home
PSG with disabilities were more likely to speak only English at home (73% versus 59%), and less likely to speak only French (15% versus 21%) or other languages (6% versus 13%), compared to their counterparts without disabilities (Figure 2).
PSG with disabilities are less likely to be immigrants than those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities were more likely to be citizens by birth (85% versus 71%) compared to their counterparts without disabilities. They were less likely to be citizens by naturalization (10% versus 13%), landed immigrants (3% versus 9%), or under other status (3% versus 7%). Among immigrants, PSG with disabilities were also less likely to be recent immigrants (18% versus 37%) (Figure 2).


Figure 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018 (cont.)

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within the same category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Language spoken most often at home.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


Most PSG with disabilities have milder disabilities27
Among the nearly 75,790 PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years in 2018, 91% had milder disabilities and only 9% had more severe disabilities. Additionally, about two-thirds (66%) had one disability, and almost one-third had two or more co-occurring disabilities (Figure 3).
The most common disability types among PSG are related to mental health, pain, and learning
The most common disability types among PSG with disabilities were related to mental health (58%), pain (41%), and learning (17%). Other types included seeing (8%), hearing (6%), memory (5%), flexibility (4%), mobility (4%), developmental (3%), and dexterity (2%) disabilities. Additionally, about 5% of disabilities reported were categorized as unknown.28


Figure 3. Disability severity, types, and number of disability types among PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years, 2018

* Significantly different from the reference category within same category (ref.) (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. ?Mild? and ?moderate? categories combined into a ?milder? severity class, and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories combined into a ?more severe? severity class.
3. Estimate are among who have at least one disability.
4. The sum of percentages might not add to 100, since some persons have more than one disability. 
5. The Disability Screening Questions (DSQ) include a catch-all question about other health problems or conditions not already captured in the 10 previous disability types. This question is associated with an 11th ?unknown? disability type.
6. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



PSG with disabilities are less likely to graduate from a program offering a postgraduate degree than those without disabilities
There were several differences between PSG with disabilities and those without disabilities when it comes to level of study for the program they graduated from in 2015. A higher percentage of PSG with disabilities held a college diploma (37% versus 34%) compared to those without disabilities (Figure 4). However, the trend reverses at the postgraduate level, where a smaller percentage of PSG with disabilities held a postgraduate degree (master?s or PhD) compared to those without disabilities (11% versus 15%). Furthermore, the difference in the percentage of PSG with and without disabilities holding a bachelor's degree was not statistically significant (52% versus 50%).
PSG with four or more disability types are less likely to pursue a postgraduate degree than those with one disability
Among PSG with disabilities, those with four or more disability types were less likely to have graduated with a postgraduate degree compared to those with only one disability type (7% versus 12%) (Figure 4). While this may indicate a potential relationship between the number of co-occurring disabilities and postgraduate attainment, it is important to note that the data reflect a limited timeframe. Some individuals may choose to pursue further education beyond the three-year period captured by the survey.


Figure 4. Level of study among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, severity, and number of disability types, 2018
 
* significantly different from estimate for reference group within same category (ref.) (p < 0.05)
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. ?Mild? and ?moderate? categories combined into a ?milder? severity class, and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories combined into a ?more severe? severity class.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



PSG with disabilities pursue different fields of studies than those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities tended to pursue different fields of study compared to those without disabilities. They were less likely to seek credentials in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) (19% versus 25%) and business and administration (19% versus 24%) (Figure 5). However, they were more likely to pursue credentials in social and behavioral sciences and law (21% versus 15%), as well as in other fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective, and transportation services (19% versus 15%) 
PSG with disabilities are more likely not to complete their program in the usual length of the time29 compared to those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities were more likely to report taking longer to complete their program compared to those without disabilities (16% versus 13%).
As indicated in Figure 6, when investigating the reasons for extended time to complete their program, PSG with disabilities were more than three times as likely to report health-related issues compared to those without disabilities (10% versus 3%). Additionally, they were almost seven times more likely to experience delays due to disability-related issues (6% versus 0.8%).


Figure 5. Field of study among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. STEM refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
3. Business, management and public administration.
4. Health and related fields.
5. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
6. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


Figure 6. Proportion of PSG aged 18 to 35 years who did not complete their program of studies in the usual length of time, by reason and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Based on responses to the survey question: ?What is the main reason you did not complete the program in the usual length of time?? The ?usual length of time? term reflects the original survey wording and generally refers to the expected program duration, as defined by the institution, when the program taken full time.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


School-to-Work Transitions
According to the 2022 CSD, persons with disabilities often participate in the labour force at lower rates than those without disabilities (H‚bert et al., 2024).30 This section examines the labour force participation patterns of PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years. It describes the proportions of PSG who were employed, unemployed, or not in the labour force, and compares these patterns to those of their peers without disabilities. In addition, it examines the factors associated with the school-to-work transition for PSG with disabilities, highlighting how these factors differ from those affecting PSG without disabilities.
PSG with disabilities are less likely to be employed compared to those without disabilities
In 2018, among PSG who graduated in 2015 and were not attending school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS interview, PSG with disabilities were less likely to be employed compared to their counterparts without disabilities (86% versus 90%) (Figure 7). Additionally, PSG with disabilities were more likely to be unemployed than those without disabilities (8% versus 6%).


Figure 7. Labour market characteristics among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within same employment status category (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Respondents were classified as employed if they had a job or business the week before interview.
3. The unemployed population consists of individuals without jobs who are actively looking for work. The unemployment percentages shown in this figure are not comparable to Statistics Canada?s unemployment rates, which exclude from the denominator individuals who are not in the labour force.
4. The population not in the labour force consists of persons who are neither employed nor seeking employment.
5. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


PSG with disabilities have lower employment rates than PSG without disabilities, both overall and particularly at the college level 
When looking at employment rates by education level, college graduates with disabilities were less likely to be employed compared to those without disabilities (86% versus 91%) (Figure 8). However, for individuals with university degrees, there was no significant difference in employment rates between those with and without disabilities.
When examining employment rates by sex, among PSG without disabilities, females were less likely to be employed than males (89% versus 91%) (Figure 9). In contrast, among PSG with disabilities, the difference in employment rates between males and females was not statistically significant. 

Figure 8. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by level of study and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within same level of study categories (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Respondents were classified as employed if they had a job or business the week before interview.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



Figure 9. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by level of study, sex and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for males within same level of study category (p < 0.05).
? significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within same sex category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Respondents were classified as employed if they had a job or business the week before interview.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


The employment rate gap between PSG with and without disabilities is larger in certain sociodemographic groups
The employment rate gap between PSG with and without disabilities was more pronounced in certain sociodemographic groups. For instance, it was particularly significant among citizens by naturalization, where 73% of PSG with disabilities were employed compared to 86% of those without disabilities, resulting in a 13- percentage point gap (Figure 10). Among citizens by birth, the employment rate was 88% for those with disabilities compared to 91% for those without, resulting in a smaller, but still notable, 3 p.p. gap.
Similarly, the gap was noticeable within racialized groups, with employment rates of 80% for PSG with disabilities versus 87% for those without, a 7 p.p. difference. Among those who speak only French, the employment rate was 86% for those with disabilities and 92% for those without, creating a 6 p.p. gap.
In terms of geographic location, the employment rate gap was evident in Ontario, where 84% of PSG with disabilities were employed compared to 89% of those without disabilities, a 5 p.p. difference. Quebec residents showed a similar pattern, with an employment rate of 86% for those with disabilities versus 91% for those without disabilities, also a 5 p.p. gap.
PSG who studied social sciences and those in the ?other? fields category have lower employment rates than those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities had a lower employment rate than those without disabilities in fields such as ?social and behavioral sciences and law? (83% versus 90%) as well as those in the ?other? fields category (82% versus 89%) (Figure 11). The latter includes a broad range of disciplines, such as visual and performing arts, communications technologies, humanities, agriculture, natural resources and conservation, and personal, protective, and transportation services.

Figure 10. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by sociodemographic characteristics and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Region of primary residence at time of interview.
3. Language spoken most often at home.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


Figure 11. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by field of study and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Sciences, technology, mathematics, engineering.
3. Business, management and public administration.
4. Health and related fields.
5. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


After accounting for select sociodemographic variables, the odds of employment remain lower for PSG with disabilities
The findings from logistic regression Model 1, which included all PSG (with and without disabilities), confirmed the expected relationship between having a disability and being employed. After controlling for a range of sociodemographic characteristics?including sex, region, level and field of study, belonging to a racialized group, Indigenous identity, language, and citizenship status? this model revealed that PSG with disabilities had lower odds of being employed [OR = 0.8, CI: 0.66-0.96] compared to PSG without disabilities (Figure 12).
This suggests that even when accounting for other characteristics that typically influence employment, disability status remains an independent factor associated with reduced employment likelihood. More specifically, the odds ratio of 0.8 implies that PSG with disabilities were about 20% less likely to be employed than those without disabilities after controlling for differences between both groups across all other characteristics included in the model.
Additionally, the results highlighted that several other variables were important predictors of employment among the total PSG population. For instance, individuals with postgraduate education had higher odds of being employed compared to those with only a bachelor?s degree. However, disparities were also observed within subgroups: PSG who identified as belonging to a racialized group had lower odds of employment compared to their non-racialized counterparts, and Indigenous PSG had lower odds of being employed compared to non-Indigenous PSG. In contrast, other covariates?such as sex, region of residence, language, and citizenship status?were not found to be statistically significant in this model (For more detailed information, see Table B.6 in Appendix B).


Figure 12. Results of Model 1, showing the associations between employment status and sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018

* significantly different from the estimate for the reference group (p < 0.05). See the Supplementary Tables for additional details regarding this analysis.
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Sciences, technology, mathematics, engineering.
3. Business, management and public administration.
4. Health and related fields.
5. Education and personal improvement.
6. Social and behavioural sciences and law.
7. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
8. The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
9. Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS.
10. Reference groups, in order: PSG without disabilities, men, Atlantic residents, college-educated, business/admin field, non-racialized, non-Indigenous, English speakers, birth citizens, and PSG with milder disabilities. See Table B.6, Appendix B for details.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


PSG with more severe disabilities were found to have lower odds of employment compared to those with milder disabilities
Logistic regression results from Model 2A?which focused exclusively on PSG with disabilities?revealed that, after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics (as previously described), individuals with more severe disabilities had significantly lower odds of being employed than those with milder disabilities [OR = 0.40, CI: 0.28?0.64] (Figure 13).
The model also identified several other significant predictors of employment among PSG with disabilities. For instance, graduates whose field of study was in ?Education and Personal Improvement? [OR = 0.43, CI: 0.25?0.76] or categorized as ?Other? [OR = 0.60, CI: 0.37?0.96] had lower odds of employment compared to those in Business and Administration. Additionally, PSG with disabilities who identified as Indigenous had lower odds of employment than their non-Indigenous counterparts [OR = 0.57, CI: 0.35?0.92] (For more detailed information, see Table B.6 in Appendix B).


Figure 13. Results of Model 2A, showing the associations between the employment status and disability severity of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018

* significantly different from the estimate for the reference group (p < 0.05). See the Supplementary Tables for additional details regarding this analysis.
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Sciences, technology, mathematics, engineering.
3. Business, management and public administration.
4. Health and related fields.
5. Education and personal improvement.
6. Social and behavioural sciences and law.
7. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
8. The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
9. Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS.
10. ?Mild? and ?moderate? categories combined into a ?milder? severity class, and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories combined into a ?more severe? severity class.
11. Reference groups, in order: PSG with milder disabilities, men, Atlantic residents, college-educated, business/admin field, non-racialized, non-Indigenous, English speakers, and citizens by birth. See Table B.6 in Appendix B.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


Mobility and mental health-related disabilities negatively impact the odds of employment among PSG with disabilities
Model 2B focused exclusively on PSG with disabilities and examined how specific types of disabilities were associated with employment status, while controlling for other sociodemographic characteristics. In this model, each disability type was included as a binary variable indicating whether or not the individual reported having that specific type of disability.31 In total, ten disability type variables were included in the model (one for each disability type).
The findings showed that PSG with a mobility disability had significantly lower odds of being employed compared to those without a mobility disability [OR = 0.36, CI: 0.14?0.92], representing a 64% reduction in the odds of employment. Similarly, those with a mental health-related disability had 40% lower odds of being employed [OR = 0.60, CI: 0.40?0.89] compared to those without this type of disability (Figure 14).
While Model 1 identified level of study, belonging to a racialized group, and Indigenous identity as significant predictors of employment in the overall PSG population, these factors did not reach statistical significance within the subgroup of PSG with disabilities in Model 2B (For more detailed information, see Table B.6 in Appendix B).


Figure 14. Results of Model 2B, showing the associations between the employment status and disability types of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018

* significantly different from the estimate for the reference group (p < 0.05). See the Supplementary Tables for additional details regarding this analysis.
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. The model was adjusted for all sociodemographic characteristics considered in the model 1, including sex, region, level of study, field of study, racialized group, visible minority, Indigenous identity, aboriginal, language, and citizenship status. For the full model with all covariates, See Table B.6 in Appendix B.
3. The reference group consists of PSG participants with disabilities who did not report the specific type of disability being analyzed.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

Job Characteristics
While some studies provide information on job characteristics of PSG overall (Reid et al., 2022),32 there is limited data on job characteristics of PSG with disabilities. This chapter delves into the comparison of job characteristics between PSG with disabilities and those without disabilities. It examines various aspects including disparities in working full-time versus part-time, job permanency, and whether jobs are related to their field of study. Additionally, it discusses the issue of being overqualified for jobs, levels of job satisfaction, and differences in earnings. 
PSG with disabilities are less likely to be employed in management and sciences, compared to their counterparts without disabilities 
PSG with disabilities were less likely to be employed in management and natural and applied sciences compared to their counterparts without disabilities. Specifically, only 3% of PSG with disabilities were employed in management roles, compared to 6% of those without disabilities (Figure 15). Similarly, 12% of PSG with disabilities were employed in natural and applied sciences, compared to 16% of their peers without disabilities.
In contrast, PSG with disabilities were more likely to be employed in sales and service occupations, with 19% of them working in this field compared to 14% of those without disabilities. Additionally, 7% of PSG with disabilities were employed in art, culture, recreation, and sport, compared to 4% of their counterparts without disabilities.


Figure 15. Occupations of employed PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Occupation refers to which field of work a respondent was employed in or worked longest in during reference period if unemployed or working two jobs (The National Occupational Classification, 2016).
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


PSG with disabilities are more likely to be employed in part-time, non-permanent jobs, and jobs not related to their studies than those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities were more likely to be employed in part-time, non-permanent jobs, and positions unrelated to their field of study compared to their counterparts without disabilities. Specifically, 14% of PSG with disabilities were employed in part-time jobs, compared to 9% of those without disabilities (Figure 16). Additionally, 23% of PSG with disabilities held non-permanent jobs, compared to 18% of their peers without disabilities. Furthermore, 28% of PSG with disabilities were employed in jobs not related to their field of study, compared to 21% of those without disabilities.
PSG with disabilities are more likely to be overqualified and less satisfied with their jobs compared to those without disabilities
There were important differences between PSG with disabilities and their counterparts without disabilities regarding whether they were working in jobs that fit their qualifications. Specifically, 30% of PSG with disabilities were overqualified for their jobs, compared to 23% of those without disabilities (Figure 16).
In terms of job satisfaction, 12% of PSG with disabilities report overall dissatisfaction with their jobs, compared to just 5% of those without disabilities. Salary dissatisfaction was even more pronounced, with 29% of PSG with disabilities unhappy with their pay, compared to 19% of their peers without disabilities. Additionally, concerns about job security were more common among PSG with disabilities, with 16% expressing such concerns compared to 9% of those without disabilities.


Figure 16. Select job characteristics among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Proportion of 2015 PSG who worked part-time (29 hours or less per week) in a job or business the week before the 2018 survey.
3. Proportion of 2015 PSG who were employed permanently in the week prior to the 2018 NGS.
4. ?Family business without pay? did not reported as a separate group, because of the cell count issue. ?Family business without pay? was categorized under the self-employee, based on the definition of the Statistic Canada (Statistics Canada, 2019).33 
5. Among 2015 PSG who were employed in the week prior to the 2018 NGS 
6. Proportion of 2015 PSG who reported that this job was somewhat or closely related to their 2015 field of study.
7. Proportion of 2015 PSG who were overqualified for their job. Overqualified graduates are those whose level of education is above the level of qualification they believe was required to get their job.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


While PSG earnings grow over time, PSG with disabilities have lower earnings overall than those without disabilities
PSG with disabilities had lower median annual earnings for their first job after graduation compared to those without disabilities ($29,037 versus $31,180) (Figure 17).
By the week before the 2018 NGS interview, median annual earnings for PSG with disabilities had increased by about $15,954 (from $29,037 to $44,991), compared to their first job after completing their 2015 program. For those without disabilities, the increase was about $18,808 (from $31,180 to $49,988). 
This means that three years after graduation (in the week before the 2018 NGS interview), PSG with disabilities still had lower median annual earnings compared to those without disabilities ($44,991 versus $49,988). Although only two data points are available (earnings at first job versus earnings at the time of the NGS interview), the data suggest a pattern of continued lower earnings for PSG with disabilities over time.
When examining the earnings gap by level of study, the disparity between PSG with and without disabilities remains evident among individuals with college diplomas and bachelor's degrees. Specifically, PSG with disabilities who hold college diploma had median annual earnings of $25,601 for their first job after graduation, compared to $29,119 for their peers without disabilities, resulting in a gap of around $3,518. By the week before the 2018 NGS interview, those with disabilities had median annual earnings of $38,165, compared to $41,595 for their peers without disabilities, resulting in a gap of around $3,430.
Additionally, PSG with disabilities who hold bachelor's degrees had median annual earnings of $47,914 the week before the 2018 NGS interview, compared to $52,410 for their peers without disabilities, resulting in a gap of around $4,496, despite the fact that their gap at the time of graduation was not significantly different.


Figure 17. Median annual earnings of PSG aged 18 to 35 years in the first job after graduation in 2015 and the job they held last week before 2018 NGS interview, by level of study and disability status

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within same level of study and job category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Estimate exclude graduated who attended school, college, CEGEP, or universities last week.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


PSG with disabilities working full-time also have lower annual earnings than their counterparts without disabilities 
The results show that even when limiting the analysis to PSG who were employed full-time (working 30 hours or more per week) at the job held the week before the 2018 NGS interview, the median annual earnings for those with disabilities were still lower than for those without disabilities ($47,855 versus $51,989) (Figure 18).
he gap in median annual earnings between PSG with and without disabilities who worked full-time persisted when examining the results by level of study. Among PSG with a college diploma who were full-time workers at the time of the NGS interview, those with disabilities earned $3,275 less than their peers without disabilities ($40,389 versus $43,664) (Figure 18). For those with a bachelor?s degree who were employed full-time, the gap was even wider, with PSG with disabilities earning $5,002 less than those without disabilities ($49,994 versus $54,996). However, the annual earnings gap was not significant among those with postgraduate degrees.
Figure 18. Median annual earnings of PSG aged 18 to 35 years working full-time at the time of interview, by the level of study and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within the same level of study category (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Estimates exclude graduates who were not working full-time (working part time/not working) in a job or business last week.
3. Estimate exclude graduated who attended school, college, CEGEP, or universities last week.
4. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


Student Debt
Literature suggests that a graduate's ability to repay student debt more quickly depends on factors such as having a smaller debt load at graduation and a higher income (Galarneau, 2018; Kapsalis, 2001; Daily, 2020).34,35,36 
As shown in the School-to-Work Transitions section, PSG with disabilities were less likely to be employed than their counterparts without disabilities. In addition, the Job Characteristics section revealed that, when employed, graduates with disabilities had lower annual earnings than those without disabilities. These factors may limit the ability of PSG with disabilities to repay their student loans as quickly as their counterparts without disabilities.
Despite this, limited evidence exists on the debt levels of PSG with disabilities and how they compare to those without disabilities in this regard. This section addresses this gap by examining the proportion of PSG with and without disabilities who had debt at graduation in 2015, the extent to which they had repaid their debt by the time of the 2018 NGS interview, the amount of debt owed at both time points, and the number and types of funding sources used to finance their postsecondary education.
Note: This section focuses on the subset of PSG who graduated in 2015 and had not pursued another postsecondary program between 2015 and the time of the NGS interview in 2018. Since debt repayment is often a lengthy process, we chose this approach for better comparability. Those who continued their education may not have had the same ability to repay their debt as those who did not.37
PSG with disabilities are more likely to owe debt at graduation than those without disabilities
More than half of PSG who graduated in 2015 reported having student debt at the time of their graduation. PSG with disabilities were more likely to have debt at graduation compared to those without disabilities (63% versus 51%) (Figure 19). This difference persisted when examining the results by level of study among PSG with college diploma (63% versus 49%), bachelor's degrees (63% versus 54%), and postgraduate degrees (64% versus 46%).
PSG with disabilities are less likely to have paid off their debt by the time of the 2018 NGS interview compared to those without disabilities
About one-third of PSG who graduated with student debt had paid it off by 2018, three years after graduation. PSG with disabilities were less likely to have paid off their debt at the time of the 2018 NGS interview compared to those without disabilities (29% versus 38%) (Figure 20). This pattern held true among graduates with bachelor's degrees (30% versus 38%) and postgraduate degrees (32% versus 41%). However, among those with college diploma, the gap between those with and without disabilities was not statistically significant.

Figure 19. PSG aged 18 to 35 years with debt at graduation, by level of study and disability status, 2015

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within the same level of study category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. Estimates exclude graduates who pursued further postsecondary education by the time of interview.
2. Based on responses to the survey question: ?Debt size of all loans at time of graduation?
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



Figure 20. PSG aged 18 to 35 years with debt who had paid it off at time of interview, by level of study and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within the same level of study category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. Estimates exclude graduates who pursued further postsecondary education by the time of interview.
2. Estimated among those who had loan at graduation.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



Average debt decreases among PSG with and without disabilities three years after graduation
PSG?s average debt between graduation in 2015 and the time of the 2018 NGS interview decreased by $3,677 for those with disabilities ($24,099 versus $20,432) and by $4,094 for those without disabilities ($23,496 versus $19,402) (Figure 21).
When examined by level of study, the difference in average debt among college graduates with disabilities between graduation and three years later was not significant. Similarly, for those without disabilities, the difference was also not significant. For bachelor's graduates, the difference in average debt for those with disabilities was not significant, while for those without disabilities, it decreased by $4,770 ($27,508 versus $22,738). For those with postgraduate degrees, the average debt of those with disabilities decreased by $6,606 ($31,873 versus $25,267), and for those without disabilities, it decreased by $5,063 ($27,920 versus $22,857). These differences were not as significant among other groups.


Figure 21. Average debt owed by PSG aged 18 to 35 years at graduation in 2015, compared to remaining debt at the time of the 2018 interview among those who still owed, by level of study and disability status

* significantly different from estimate for PSG average debt remaining at time of interview within the same level of study category (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. Estimates exclude graduates who pursued further postsecondary education by the time of interview.
2. Average debt remaining at time of graduation estimate are among those who had debt, so the average estimates did exclude zero values.
3. Average debt remaining at time of interview estimate are among those who still had debt, so the average estimates did exclude zero values.
4. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.
PSG with disabilities are more likely to use three or more sources of funding for their postsecondary education than those without disabilities
The majority of PSG used more than three sources of funding for their postsecondary education. However, PSG with disabilities were more likely to use three or more sources of funding compared to their counterparts without disabilities (77% versus 70%) (Figure 22). This highlights that a higher proportion of PSG with disabilities needed to rely on multiple funding sources to support their education.
PSG with disabilities had a lower average amount of loans from family or friends ($8,900) compared to those without disabilities ($13,600) (Figure 23). This suggests that PSG with disabilities might have received less financial support through personal networks, impacting their overall funding strategy for postsecondary education. 

Figure 22. Number of sources of funding used by PSG aged 18 to 35 years for postsecondary education, by disability status, 2018
 
* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities within same category (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. Estimates exclude graduates who pursued further postsecondary education by the time of interview.
2. Estimates are among all respondents who have at least one source of funding.
3. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.



Figure 23. Average debt among PSG aged 18 to 35 years for postsecondary education, by funding source and disability status, 2018

* significantly different from estimate for PSG without disabilities (p < 0.05).
Notes.
1. Estimates exclude graduates who pursued further postsecondary education by the time of interview.
2. Estimates are among all respondents who have at least one source of funding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

CONCLUSIONS
This study, based on nationally representative data, provides a detailed analysis of the demographic?s characteristics, school-to-work transitions, employment outcomes, and debt patterns of PSG with disabilities. The findings corroborate several predictors of employment success identified in similar previous research on disability, offering valuable insights into the factors influencing positive employment outcomes for this group. Key findings of this study include:
Profile of Postsecondary Graduates
* In 2018, over one in five (23%) PSG aged 18 to 35 years in Canada, or 75,790 people, identified as having one or more disabilities.
* Compared to their counterparts without disabilities, PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years were more likely to be female (68% versus 55%), less likely to belong to a racialized group (22% versus 34%), and less likely to be landed immigrants (3% versus 9%). Among immigrants, they were also less likely to be recent immigrants (18% versus 37%).
* Around 9 out of 10 (91%) PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years had milder disabilities, and around two-thirds (66%) had only one disability. The most common disability types were related to mental health (58%), pain (41%), and learning (17%).
* Compared to those without disabilities, PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years were less likely to study STEM (19% versus 25%) and business and administration (19% versus 24%), and more likely to study social and behavioral sciences (21% versus 15%) and the ?other? fields category38 (19% versus 15%).

Transition from school-to-work 
* Consistent with previous research on the employment experiences of persons with disabilities, PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years were less likely to be employed than their counterparts without disabilities (86% versus 90%; gap: 4 p.p.).
* Among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, the employment gap between those with and without disabilities was larger within certain sociodemographic groups. The gap was 13 p.p. among citizens by naturalization, 7 p.p. among those belonging to a racialized group, 7 p.p. among graduates in the ?other? fields category, 6 p.p. among graduates in social and behavioral sciences and law, 6 p.p. among PSG who speak only French, and 5 p.p. among residents of Ontario or Quebec.
* Model 1, which included all PSG with and without disabilities, confirmed that having a disability was significantly associated with lower odds of employment. After controlling for a comprehensive set of sociodemographic factors?including sex, region of residence, level and field of study, belonging to a racialized group, Indigenous identity, language, and citizenship status?PSG with disabilities were found to have 20% lower odds of being employed compared to their counterparts without disabilities [OR = 0.8, CI: 0.66?0.96]. This finding underscores that disability status remains an independent and influential factor in employment outcomes, even when accounting for other key predictors. While level and field of study, belonging to a racialized group, and Indigenous identity emerged as important predictors of employment among PSG, other variables such as sex, region, language, and citizenship status were not statistically significant.
* Model 2A, which focused exclusively on PSG with disabilities, found that individuals with more severe disabilities had significantly lower odds of being employed compared to those with milder disabilities [OR = 0.40, CI: 0.28?0.64], reflecting a 60% reduction in employment likelihood. Additionally, among PSG with disabilities, those who identified as Indigenous had 43% lower odds of employment than their non-Indigenous counterparts [OR = 0.57, CI: 0.35?0.92].
* Model 2B, which included only PSG with disabilities, showed that PSG with mobility disabilities had significantly lower odds of being employed than those with other types of disabilities [OR = 0.36, CI: 0.14?0.92], representing a 64% reduction in the odds of employment. Similarly, those with a mental health-related disability had 40% lower odds of being employed [OR = 0.60, CI: 0.40?0.89], compared to PSG with disabilities who did not report these specific types.
Job characteristics
* PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years face distinct employment patterns compared to those without disabilities. They were less likely to be employed in management (6% versus 3%) and science-related occupations (12% versus 16%), but more likely to work in sales and service (19% versus 14%) and in arts, culture, recreation, and sports (7% versus 4%).
* Additionally, PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years were more often employed in part-time (14% versus 9%) and non-permanent jobs (23% versus 18%), and in positions unrelated to their studies (28% versus 21%). They were also more likely to be overqualified (30% versus 23%) and dissatisfied with their jobs overall (12% versus 5%).
* PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years had lower median annual earnings for their first job after graduation compared to those without disabilities ($29,037 versus $31,180). 
* By the week before the 2018 NGS interview, median annual earnings for PSG with disabilities had increased by about $15,954 (from $29,037 to $44,991), compared to their first job after graduation in 2015. For those without disabilities, the increase was about $18,808 (from $31,180 to $49,988). This means that in the week before the 2018 NGS interview, PSG with disabilities had lower median annual earnings compared to those without disabilities ($44,991 versus $49,988). 
* Even when limiting the analysis to those working full-time, PSG with disabilities earn less than their counterparts without disabilities ($47,855 versus $51,989).
Student debt
* PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years face greater financial challenges compared to those without disabilities. They were more likely to owe debt at graduation (63% versus 51%) and less likely to have paid off their debt by the time of the 2018 NGS interview (29% versus 38%).
* The average debt amount for PSG aged 18 to 35 years decreased between graduation and the time of the interview. For PSG with disabilities, the average debt decreased by $3,677 (from $24,099 to $20,432), while for those without disabilities, it decreased by $4,094 (from $23,496 to $19,402).
* Additionally, PSG with disabilities aged 18 to 35 years were more likely to use three or more sources of funding for their postsecondary education (77% versus 70%) compared to their counterparts without disabilities.
Overall, the findings of this study align with previous research on the labour market experience of persons with disabilities (H‚bert et al., 2024; Chatoor, 2021)39,40 revealing statistically significant disparities in employment outcomes for persons with disabilities compared to their peers without disabilities. The persistent gaps between PSG with and without disabilities highlight the need for targeted support and interventions to achieve more equitable outcomes.

FUTURE RESEARCH
This study offers new insights into the experiences of graduates with disabilities in Canada by using data from the 2018 NGS?the first cycle of this survey to include the DSQ, enabling identification through a social model approach aligned with the CSD. At the same time, the study reveals important limitations in the current data, highlighting critical knowledge gaps that future research should address. The sections below outline key areas where further investigation is needed.
Exploring disparities in the field of study 
A critical area for future research involves understanding why PSG with disabilities are underrepresented in high-opportunity fields such as STEM and business. These disparities may potentially stem from a range of structural, educational, or social barriers that influence students' choices and access to certain programs. To uncover the root causes, future studies?particularly qualitative research?should explore the lived experiences, motivations, and constraints faced by students with disabilities. Gaining deeper insight into these dynamics is essential for informing inclusive policies and practices that promote equitable access to all fields of study.
Examining labour market challenges: a supply and demand perspective
Findings from the 2018 NGS reveal differences in employment outcomes between PSG with and without disabilities but offer limited insight into the underlying causes. To address this gap, further research is needed to identify potential barriers faced by PSG with disabilities from both the supply and demand sides of the labour market. On the supply side, the literature suggests that individuals may face challenges during critical transitions?such as entering postsecondary education or the workforce?including limited development of soft skills, restricted access to professional networks, financial constraints, the cost of assistive technologies, internalized stigma, transportation challenges, and broader accessibility issues (Bonaccio et al., 2020).41 On the demand side, studies point to employer misconceptions about productivity and accommodation costs, sectoral readiness to hire, a lack of inclusive workplace practices, and systemic biases as factors that may shape employment outcomes for people with disabilities (Baker et al., 2018).42 Exploring these possible influences could contribute to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the challenges at play.
Understanding unmet needs among PSG with disabilities
Another important area for future research involves the lack of data on unmet needs experienced by PSG with disabilities. While the 2018 NGS offers valuable insights into employment outcomes for PSG with disabilities compared to those without disabilities, it does not collect information on unmet needs (for example regarding assistive aids, devices or technologies) or accessibility barriers they encounter. The 2022 CSD provides important data on these issues more broadly, but it does not focus specifically on the experiences of PSG. Collecting more targeted data for this group would offer critical insights to inform policies aimed at improving accessibility, addressing unmet needs, and supporting more equitable education-to-employment transitions.
Investigating intersectional disparities
The findings also point to the need for intersectional research. Specifically, having an Indigenous identity is associated with a lower likelihood of employment among PSG with disabilities. Additionally, across the total PSG population, both Indigenous identity and belonging to a racialized group are linked to reduced employment likelihood. These associations suggest the potential presence of systemic barriers that may influence both educational experiences and transitions into the labour market. Further research is needed to identify potential barriers faced by graduates belonging to a racialized group or having an Indigenous identity, particularly in accessing, completing, and benefiting from postsecondary education.
Disability type matters: understanding unique barriers among PSG with disabilities
It?s important to recognize that PSG with disabilities are not a homogenous group, as each type of disability presents distinct needs, challenges, and barriers. This study found that, among PSG with disabilities, those with mobility and mental health-related disabilities had lower odds of being employed. This suggests that PSG with these specific disability types encounter greater obstacles in transitioning to work and accessing suitable jobs. Future research?particularly qualitative studies?should explore the specific unmet needs, barriers, and challenges faced by these groups of PSG with disabilities to help inform the development of inclusive policies and targeted supports for them.
Exploring earnings disparities among PSG with disabilities
Building on the employment challenges faced by specific disability groups, this study also highlights earnings disparities between PSG with disabilities and their peers without disabilities. These graduates tend to earn less in their first jobs after graduation, and this gap persists even among those employed full-time.
The underlying causes are likely complex and may be shaped by differences in field of study, occupation, access to employment opportunities, workplace barriers, stigma, and other systemic factors. To better understand why PSG with disabilities fall behind in terms of income, further research using more advanced methodologies is needed. For example, a two-stage modeling approach?where the first stage examines employment status and the second model?s earnings conditional on being employed?could help disentangle the factors influencing both access to employment and income levels. Although income was not included in the regression modeling in this study, such approaches could be valuable in future work. It is also important to explore how these income disparities may act as barriers throughout the life course, potentially affecting the long-term economic well-being of PSG with disabilities.
Understanding financial challenges among PSG with disabilities
Closely related to earnings disparities are the financial challenges that PSG with disabilities often face. This study reveals that they are more likely to graduate with student debt and less likely to have repaid it within a few years compared to their peers without disabilities. In Canada, several financial assistance programs?such as the Canada Student Grant for Students with Disabilities, the Repayment Assistance Plan for Borrowers with a Permanent Disability,43 and the Severe and Permanent Disability Benefit44?are designed to help alleviate these challenges. While these supports play an important role in reducing financial strain, further research is needed to better understand how they are accessed and experienced by graduates with disabilities. In particular, examining how eligibility criteria and program structures influence participation and outcomes can help determine the extent to which these supports effectively reduce long-term financial hardship.

APPENDICES
Appendix A. Definitions
Disability Severity: Two severity classes were established based on global severity score. The ?mild? and ?moderate? categories into a ?milder? and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories into a ?more severe? (Pianosi et al., 2022).45
Disability types: Ten following types of disabilities were considered: pain-related, flexibility, mobility, mental health-related, seeing, learning, hearing, dexterity, memory, developmental. The Disability Screening Questions (DSQ) include a catch-all question about other health problems or conditions not already captured in the 10 previous disability types. This question is associated with an 11th ?unknown? disability type. For more information on how types of disability are identified, please see (Pianosi et al., 2022).46
College: Includes college and other non-university certificates and diplomas (including collŠge d'enseignement g‚n‚ral et professionnel (CEGEP)).
Bachelor?s: Includes bachelor?s degrees, and university certificates and diplomas below bachelor?s degrees.
Postgraduate: Includes master?s degrees and university certificates and diplomas above bachelor?s degrees.
Employment rate: Proportion of 2015 PSG who were employed or had a business in the week prior to the 2018 NGS.
Full-time employment: Proportion of 2015 PSG who worked full time (at least 30 hours per week) in a job or business the week before the 2018 NGS.
Permanent employment: Proportion of 2015 PSG who were employed permanently in the week prior to the 2018 NGS.
Job somewhat or closely related to the 2015 field of study: Proportion of 2015 PSG who reported that this job was somewhat or closely related to their 2015 field of study.
Overqualification: Proportion of 2015 PSG who were overqualified for their job. Overqualified graduates are those whose level of education is above the level of qualification they believe was required to get their job.
Earnings: Annual salary including tips and commissions, before taxes and all other deductions, for the job held during the week prior to the 2018 NGS, received by 2015 PSG. When earnings are reported as an hourly rate, they are annualized using a standard weekly work schedule.
Full-time employment earnings: Annual salary as defined above, for employees who reported working full time (at least 30 hours per week).
Debt from all sources: Debt size of all loans (at time of graduation/interview) includes the debt of those who had a government-sponsored student loans, who borrowed money from parent, souse, partner, family or friends that they have to pay back, who borrowed money from a bank or line of credit to fund their postsecondary education. 



Appendix B. Supplementary Tables
Table B.1. Survey population overview and select subgroups
ÿ


95% confidence interval 
ÿ
Number
percent
Lower
Upper
Postsecondary graduates (PSG) aged 15 and over by age group
   15 to 17 years
820
0.2
0.1
0.3
   18 to 24 years
234,880
55.3
54.5
56.2
   25 to 29 years
91,220
21.5
20.8
22.2
   30 to 35 years
43,390
10.2
9.7
10.7
   36 to 68 years
53,470
12.6
12.1
13.1
   Missing
640
0.2
0.1
0.2
   Total
424,420
100.0


PSG aged 18 to 35 who attended school last week before 2018 NGS interview
PSG with disabilities
   Attended school
12,200
13.8
12.4
15.3
   Not attended school
75,790
86
84.5
87.4
PSG without disabilities
   Attended school
30,200
10.7
10
11.5
   Not attended school
250,600
89.1
88.3
89.8
Total, PGS with and without disabilities
   Attended school
42,400
11.5
10.8
12.1
   Not attended school
326,390
88.3
87.7
89.0
PSG aged 18 to 35 who taken program towards certificate, diploma, degree since 2015
PSG with disabilities
   Taken program since 2015
40,470
45.9
43.9
47.9
   Not taken program since 2015
47,650
54.1
52.1
56.0
PSG without disabilities
   Taken program since 2015
112,790
40.1
39.0
41.2
   Not taken program since 2015
168,140
59.8
58.6
60.9
Total, PGS with and without disabilities
   Taken program since 2015
153,250
41.5
40.5
42.5
   Not taken program since 2015
215,790
58.4
57.4
59.4
PSG aged 18 to 35 by their employment status during 2015 program
PSG with disabilities
   Worked during 2015 program
68,590
77.8
76.2
79.5
   Not worked during 2015 program
19,440
22.1
20.4
23.7
PSG without disabilities
   Worked during 2015 program
203,660
72.4
70.9
73.8
   Not worked during 2015 program
77,190
27.4
26
28.9
Total, PGS with and without disabilities
   Worked during 2015 program
272,240
73.7
72.5
74.9
   Not worked during 2015 program
96,630
26.2
25
27.3

Table B.2. Sociodemographic characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

PSG with disabilities
PSG without disabilities (ref.)
Chractestics1

95% confidence interval

95% confidence interval

Percent
lower
upper
Percent
lower
upper
Sex
 


 


Male
32.4*
30.2
34.7
45.5
43.7
47.3
Female
67.6*
65.3
69.8
54.5
52.7
56.3
Age group2






18 to 24 years
64.5
62.4
66.6
62.0
60.7
63.4
25 to 29 years
23.4
21.7
25.2
25.6
24.6
26.7
30 to 35 years
12.1
10.9
13.3
12.3
11.5
13.1
Level of study






College
37.4*
35.5
39.3
34.4
33.6
35.2
Bachelor's
51.7
49.7
53.7
50.3
49.4
51.1
Postgraduates (Master and PhD)
10.9*
10.0
11.8
15.4
14.8
15.9
Language3
 


 


English only
72.6*
70.7
74.5
58.5
57.3
59.7
French only
14.5*
13.2
15.8
21.6
20.8
22.3
Other only
6.4*
5.1
7.7
13.2
12.2
14.3
Multiple languages4
6.5
5.4
7.6
6.7
6.0
7.4
Region5






Atlantic provinces
7.1*
6.5
7.6
5.7
5.4
6.0
Quebec
18.3*
16.8
19.7
25.2
24.4
25.9
Ontario
44.8*
42.7
46.9
41.4
40.3
42.4
Western prov & territories
29.8
28.3
31.4
27.7
27.0
28.5
Racialized group
 


 


Non-racialized 
78.4*
76.4
80.4
66.4
64.9
67.9
Racialized groups
21.6*
19.6
23.6
33.6
32.1
35.1
Indigenous identity6






Non-Indigenous
95.8
95.0
96.6
96.8
96.3
97.3
Indigenous groups
4.2
3.4
5.0
3.2
2.7
3.7
Citizenship status






Citizen, by birth
85.1*
83.2
87.0
70.7
69.1
72.3
Citizen, by naturalization
9.5*
8.1
10.9
13.4
12.4
14.3
Landed immigrant
2.9*
1.9
3.9
8.7
7.6
9.8
Other
2.5*
1.3
3.7
7.2
6.0
8.5
Ever been a landed Immigrant






Immigrants
84.1
77.3
91.0
74.4
71.1
77.7
Non-immigrants
15.9
9.0
22.7
25.6
22.3
28.9
Immigration time7






2013 to 2018 (recent)
18.2*
11.6
24.8
36.6
32.6
40.7
2012 and earlier (Non-recent)
81.8*
75.2
88.4
63.4
59.3
67.4
* Significantly different from the PSG without disabilities at (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Age at the time of graduation in 2015. 
3. Language spoken most often at home.
4. Multiple languages Includes 1. English and French only, 2. English and other only, 3. French and other only, 4. English, French and other.
5. Region of primary residence at time of interview
6. The terminology within the concept has been updated from 'Aboriginal' to 'Indigenous'. Aboriginal identity refers to whether the person reported identifying with the Aboriginal peoples of Canada. This includes First Nations (North American Indian), Metis or Inuk (Inuit).
7. Among responders who were not born in Canada.
8. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

Table B.3. Field of study among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018
Field of study2
PSG with disabilities
PSG without disabilities (ref.)


95% confidence interval

95% confidence interval

Percent
lower
upper
Percent
lower
upper
STEM3
18.9*
17.1
20.8
25.1
23.4
26.8
Business and administration4
18.5*
16.6
20.3
23.5
22.3
24.7
Health care5
15.6
14.0
17.1
15.0
14.0
16.0
Education and personal improvement
6.7
5.7
7.6
6.1
5.5
6.6
Social and behavioural sciences and law
21.1*
19.1
23.1
15.4
14.3
16.5
Other fields6
19.3*
17.4
21.3
14.9
13.8
16.0
* Significantly different from the reference category at (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Based on Classification of Instructional Program (CIP).
3. STEM refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
4. Business, management and public administration.
5. Health and related fields.
6. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
7. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

Table B.4. Employment rate among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by sociodemographic characteristics and disability status, 2018

PSG with disabilities
PSG without disabilities (ref.)

Percent
lower
upper
Percent
lower
upper
Racialized group2






Non-racialized 
88.1*
86.5
89.7
91.3
90.4
92.1
Racialized groups
80.2*
75.1
85.3
87.1
85.4
88.7
Indigenous identity3
 
 
 
 
 
 
Non-Indigenous
88.2*
86.6
89.7
90.8
90.0
91.6
Indigenous groups
81.4
74.9
87.9
86.5
81.2
91.8
Language4






English only
87.8
86.1
89.5
89.9
88.9
90.8
French only
85.8*
81.8
89.8
92.0
90.4
93.5
Other only
72.8
61.7
83.9
86.0
83.3
88.8
Multiple language5
79.2
71.3
87.2
89.6
87.1
92.2
Region6






Atlantic provinces
88.7
87.0
90.4
89.6
88.0
91.2
Quebec
86.4*
83.1
89.7
91.3
89.8
92.7
Ontario
84.0*
80.8
87.2
88.8
87.3
90.3
Western prov & territories
88.1
86.2
89.9
90.0
89.1
91.0
Citizenship status






Citizen by Birth
87.8*
86.3
89.4
90.8
90.0
91.6
Citizen by naturalisation
73.4*
66.3
80.5
86.4
84.2
88.7
Landed immigrant
85.3
74.4
96.2
88.2
85.2
91.2
Other
71.6
50.1
93.2
88.2
84.0
92.4
Immigration time7






Recent (2013-2018)
89.8
81.6
98.0
88.1
84.8
91.4
Non-recent (2012-earlier)
74.2*
67.4
81.0
86.3
84.0
88.6
Field of study8






STEM9
88.9
86.1
91.8
90.2
88.7
91.7
Business and administration10
88.6
85.6
91.6
92.1
90.8
93.4
Health care11
91.7
88.5
94.8
91.9
90.0
93.7
Education & personal improvement
79.0
72.8
85.2
78.1
74.2
81.9
Social and behavioural sciences and law
83.1*
78.7
87.4
89.5
87.4
91.7
Other fields12
81.6*
77.3
85.8
88.6
86.6
90.7
* Significantly different from the PSG without disabilities at (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS.
3. The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
4. Language spoken most often at home.
5. Multiple languages Includes 1. English and French only, 2. English and other only, 3. French and other only, 4. English, French and other.
6. Region of primary residence at time of interview.
7. Among responders who were not born in Canada.
8. Classification of instructional program (CIP).
9. STEM refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
10. Business, management and public administration.
11. Health and related fields.
12. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
13. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

Table B.5. Selected job characteristics among PSG aged 18 to 35 years, by disability status, 2018

PSG with disabilities
PSG without disabilities (ref.)

Percent
lower
upper
Percent
lower
upper
Worked hours2






  Full-time (30 hours or more)
86.4*
84.8
88.0
91.4
90.6
92.1
  Part-time (29 hours or less)
13.6*
12.0
15.2
8.6
7.9
9.4
Job permanency 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Permanent3
77.0*
75.0
79.0
82.3
81.3
83.4
  Non-permanent
23.0*
21.0
25.0
17.7
16.6
18.7
Self-employment
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Employee
92.6
91.3
93.8
94.1
93.5
94.7
  Self-employment4
7.4
6.2
8.7
5.9
5.3
6.5
Job satisfaction: overall5
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Very satisfied+ satisfied
74.7*
72.5
76.9
84.9
83.9
86.0
  Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
13.7*
11.9
15.5
9.8
8.9
10.7
  Dissatisfied+ very dissatisfied
11.6*
10.0
13.2
5.2
4.6
5.9
Job satisfaction: wage&salary5
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Very satisfied+ satisfied
53.8*
51.4
56.2
64.2
62.8
65.6
  Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
17.6
15.6
19.6
17.3
16.1
18.4
  Dissatisfied+ very dissatisfied
28.6*
26.3
30.8
18.5
17.5
19.6
Job satisfaction: job security5
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Very satisfied+ satisfied
70.4*
68.1
72.6
79.7
78.6
80.8
  Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
13.6
12.0
15.2
11.3
10.3
12.2
  Dissatisfied+ very dissatisfied
16.1*
14.2
17.9
9.0
8.2
9.8
Finding job related to studies
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Closely/Somewhat related6
72.5*
70.4
74.6
78.8
77.7
80.0
  Not at al related 
27.5*
25.4
29.6
21.2
20.0
22.3
Qualification for the job
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Overqualified7 
30.2*
27.9
32.5
23.4
22.2
24.6
  Qualified
67.1*
64.7
69.4
75.0
73.8
76.1
  Under qualified
2.7
1.9
3.6
1.6
1.3
2.0
* Significantly different from the reference category at (p < 0.05).
Notes. 
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded.
2. Proportion of 2015 PSG participants who worked either full-time (30 hours or more per week) or part-time (29 hours or less per week) in a job or business during the week prior to the 2018 survey.
3. Proportion of 2015 PSG who were employed permanently in the week prior to the 2018 NGS.
4. ?Family business without pay? did not reported as a separate group, because of the cell count issue. ?Family business without pay? was categorized under the self-employee, based on the definition of the Statistic Canada.47 
5. Among 2015 PSG who were employed in the week prior to the 2018 NGS 
6. Proportion of 2015 PSG who reported that this job was somewhat or closely related to their 2015 field of study.
7. Proportion of 2015 PSG who were overqualified for their job. Overqualified graduates are those whose level of education is above the level of qualification they believe was required to get their job.
8. The sum of the values for each category may differ from the total due to rounding
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.

Table B.6. Results of logistic regression showing the associations between the employment status and characteristics of PSG aged 18 to 35 years, 2018
Model

1. Total PSG population
2A. PSG With disabilities
2B. PSG With disabilities



95% confidence interval

95% confidence interval

95% confidence interval
Characteristics
OR2
lower
upper
OR2
lower
upper
OR
lower
upper
Disability status
PSG without disabilities (ref.)
1.0
?
?







PSG with disabilities
0.8*
0.7
1.0






Sex
Male (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Female
0.9
0.7
1.0
1.0
0.7
1.4
1.0
0.7
1.5
Region3
Atlantic prov. (ref.) 
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Quebec
1.3
0.9
2.0
1.4
0.8
2.5
1.2
0.7
2.1

Ontario 
1.0
0.8
1.3
0.9
0.7
1.3
1.0
0.7
1.5

Western prov & territories 
1.2*
1.0
1.4
1.0
0.8
1.3
0.9
0.7
1.2
Level of study
College (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Bachelor's
1.0
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.7
1.4
0.8
0.6
1.2

Postgraduates
1.4*
1.1
1.8
1.4
0.9
2.1
1.2
0.8
1.8
Field of study4
Business & admin. (ref.)5 
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

STEM6
0.8
0.6
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.7
0.9
0.5
1.5

Health care7
1.1
0.8
1.5
1.6
0.9
3.1
1.5
0.7
3.0

Education & personal improvement
0.3*
0.2
0.4
0.4*
0.2
0.8
0.4*
0.2
0.7

Social, behavioural sciences and law
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.7
0.5
1.2
0.7
0.4
1.1

Other fields8
0.6*
0.5
0.8
0.6*
0.4
1.0
0.7
0.4
1.1
Racialized group9
Non-racialized (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Racialized groups
0.7*
0.5
0.9
0.8
0.5
1.4
1.0
0.6
1.8
Indigenous identity10
Non- Indigenous (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Indigenous
0.6*
0.4
0.9
0.6*
0.4
0.9
0.7
0.4
1.3
Language11
English only (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

French only 
1.0
0.7
1.4
0.6
0.3
1.1
0.6
0.3
1.1

Other only
0.8
0.4
1.3
0.5
0.2
1.6
0.4
0.1
1.3

Multiple languages12
1.1
0.7
1.8
1.1
0.5
2.7
1.2
0.5
2.8
Citizenship status
Citizen by birth (ref.)
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?
1.0
?
?

Citizen by naturalization
0.4
0.1
1.0
1.7
0.3
11.6
0.9
0.1
6.5

Landed immigrant
0.6
0.2
2.0
2.4
0.6
9.1
4.6
1.1
18.8

Other
1.0
0.2
3.9
1.2
0.1
18.4
1.1
0.1
17.1
Disability severity13
Milder (ref.)



1.0
?
?




More severe



0.4*
0.3
0.6



Types of disabilities
Seeing 
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.1
0.5
2.0
Hearing
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






0.9
0.4
2.0
Mobility
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






0.4*
0.1
0.9
Flexibility
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.4
0.5
3.5
Dexterity
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






0.8
0.3
2.2
Pain-related
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.2
0.8
1.8
Learning disability
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.1
0.4
2.9
Developmental
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.0
0.6
1.5
Memory
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






1.4
0.7
2.8
Mental health-related
No (ref.)






1.0
?
?

Yes






0.6*
0.4
0.9
* Significantly different from the reference category at (p < 0.05).
Note.
1. PSG who attended school, college, CEGEP, or university the week before the 2018 NGS were excluded. 
2. Odds Ratio.
3. Region of primary residence at time of interview.
4. Classification of instructional program.
5. Business, management and public administration.
6. STEM refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
7. Health and related fields.
8. Other includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
9. Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS.
10. The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
11. Language spoken most often at home.
12. Includes 1. English and French only, 2. English and other only, 3. French and other only, 4. English, French and other.
13. ?Mild? and ?moderate? categories combined into a ?milder? severity class, and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories combined into a ?more severe? severity class.
Source: Statistics Canada, National Graduates Survey, 2018.


1 Gillies J. University graduates with a disability: The transition to the workforce. Disability Studies Quarterly. 2012 Jul 2;32(3). Retrieved from https://dsq-sds.org/article/view/3281/0 
2 Perri M, McColl MA, Khan A, Jetha A. Scanning and synthesizing Canadian policies that address the school-to-work transition of youth and young adults with disabilities. Disability and health journal. 2021 Oct 1;14(4):101122. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1936657421000686?via%3Dihub 
3 United Nation (2006). Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Disability. Article 27 ? Work and employment. Article 27 ? Work and employment | United Nations Enable 
4 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2024). Canadian Indicators for the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/esdc-edsc/documents/corporate/reports/research/indicators-united-nations-convention/uncrpd_pdf_20241217_en.pdf 
5 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2022). Canada?s Disability Inclusion Action Plan, 2022. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/disability-inclusion-action-plan/action-plan-2022.html 
6 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2024). Employment Strategy for Canadians with Disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/disability-inclusion-action-plan/employment-strategy.html 
7 EARN (Employment Accessibility Resource Network) (2020). Improving Employment Outcomes for Post-Secondary Graduates with Disabilities. Retrieved from https://earn-paire.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/YwD-Report-Eng.pdf 
8 CERIV (2019). Post-secondary students with disabilities face gaps in career education services. https://ceric.ca/2019/05/post-secondary-students-with-disabilities-face-gaps-in-career-education-services/ 
9 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2016). Understanding the Realities: Youth Employment in Canada ? Interim report of the Expert Panel on Youth Employment, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/corporate/youth-expert-panel/interim-report.html 
10 Chatoor K. (2021). Postsecondary credential attainment and labour market outcomes for Ontario students with disabilities. Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Retrieved from Postsecondary-Credential-Attainment-and-Labour-Market-Outcomes-for-Ontario-Students-with-Disabilities_FINAL.pdf
11 Brooks JD. Just a little respect: Differences in job satisfaction among individuals with and without disabilities. Social Science Quarterly. 2019 Feb;100(1):379-88. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ssqu.12543 
12 Conference Board of Canada (2018). The benefits of inclusive workplaces: Impact on job quality and productivity. Retrieved from https://www.conferenceboard.ca 
13 Blanck P, Hyseni F, Goodman N. (2024). Economic inclusion and empowerment of people with disabilities. InHandbook of disability: critical thought and social change in a globalizing world. pp. 1207-1228. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
14 H‚bert BP, Kevins C, Mofidi A, Morris S, Simionescu D, Thicke M. (2024). A demographic, employment, and income profile of persons with disabilities aged 15 years and over in Canada, 2022. Reports on disability and accessibility in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2024001-eng.htm
15 McDiarmid C. (2023). Earnings pay gap among persons with and without disabilities, 2019. Statistics Canada. Earnings pay gap among persons with and without disabilities, 2019 
16 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2022). Canada?s Disability Inclusion Action Plan, 2022. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/disability-inclusion-action-plan/action-plan-2022.html 
17 ESDC (Employment and Social Development Canada) (2024). Employment Strategy for Canadians with Disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/disability-inclusion-action-plan/employment-strategy.html 
18 Statistics Canada (2018). National Graduates Survey: Detailed information for 2018 (class of 2015). Retrieved from https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&Id=793554 
19 Grondin (2016). A New Survey Measure of Disability: The Disability Screening Questions (DSQ). Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2016003-eng.htm 
20 Statistics Canada (2018). National Graduates Survey: Detailed information for 2018 (class of 2015). Retrieved from https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&Id=793554 
21 CollŠge d'enseignement g‚n‚ral et professionnel
22 Racialized refers to whether a person is a visible minority as defined by the Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour. This classification is based on the self-identification question regarding membership in a visible minority group from the 2018 NGS survey.
23 The term 'Aboriginal' has been updated to 'Indigenous'. Indigenous identity refers to individuals who identify with the Indigenous peoples of Canada, including First Nations (North American Indian), M‚tis, or Inuk (Inuit), in the 2018 NGS.
24 H‚bert BP, Kevins C, Mofidi A, Morris S, Simionescu D, Thicke M. (2024). A demographic, employment, and income profile of persons with disabilities aged 15 years and over in Canada, 2022. Reports on disability and accessibility in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2024001-eng.htm
25 The overall response rate to the survey was 63 percent, with about 2/3 of the response cases self-completed online by respondent. The survey, which used a stratified simple random sample design, sampled graduates from postsecondary education institutions (such as universities, colleges, and trade schools) in Canada who graduated with degrees, diplomas or certificates sometime in 2015.
26 Statistics Canada (2018). National Graduates Survey: Detailed information for 2018 (class of 2015). Retrieved from https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&Id=793554 
27 For ease of discussion, this article combines the ?mild? and ?moderate? disability severity categories into a ?milder? severity class, and the ?severe? and ?very severe? categories into a ?more severe? severity class. For more information, please see: Pianosi R, Presley L, Buchanan J, L‚vesque A, Savard A, and Lam J (2023). Canadian Survey on Disability, 2022: Concepts and Methods Guide. Reports on Disability and Accessibility in Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-654-X2023004. Retrieved from https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.928228/publication.html
28 The Disability Screening Questions (DSQ) include a catch-all question about other health problems or conditions not already captured in the 10 previous disability types. This question is associated with an 11th ?unknown? disability type. For more information on how types of disability are identified, please see: Pianosi R, Presley L, Buchanan J, L‚vesque A, Savard A, and Lam J (2023). Canadian Survey on Disability, 2022: Concepts and Methods Guide. Reports on Disability and Accessibility in Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-654-X2023004. Retrieved from https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.928228/publication.html 
29 The ?usual length of time? term reflects the original survey wording and generally refers to the expected program duration, as defined by the institution, when the program is taken full time. Respondents were asked ?What is the usual length of the program when taken full time??, ?Did you complete the program in the usual length of time?, and (if they didn?t) ?What is the main reason you did not complete the program in the usual length of time?.
30 H‚bert BP, Kevins C, Mofidi A, Morris S, Simionescu D, Thicke M. (2024). A demographic, employment, and income profile of persons with disabilities aged 15 years and over in Canada, 2022. Reports on disability and accessibility in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2024001-eng.htm
31 Importantly, individuals who did not report a particular disability type (e.g., mental health-related disability) may still have had one or more other types of disabilities.
32 Reid A, Chen H, Guertin R. Labour Market Outcomes of Postsecondary Graduates, Class of 2015. Education, Learning and Training: Research Paper Series. Statistics Canada. 2020 Nov 17. Retrieved from Labour market outcomes of postsecondary graduates, class of 2015 
33 Statistics Canada (2019). Standards, data sources and methods, Statistical classifications Classification of worker ? Employment. Retrieved from https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3VD.pl?Function=getVD&TVD=138483&CVD=138485&CPV=8.2.5&CST=01010001&CLV=2&MLV=2 
34 Galarneau D, Gibson L. Trends in student debt of postsecondary graduates in Canada: Results from the National Graduates Survey, 2018. Statistics Canada= Statistique Canada; 2020. Retrieved from Trends in student debt of postsecondary graduates in Canada: Results from the National Graduates Survey, 2018
35 Kapsalis C. (2001). Factors affecting the repayment of student loans: Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/81-595-m/81-595-m2006039-eng.pdf?st=z3p39nFN 
36 Daily (2020). Half of recent postsecondary graduates had student debt prior to the pandemic. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/daily-quotidien/200825/dq200825b-eng.pdf?st=IiIH4AUq 
37 This is similar to approaches taken by Statistics Canada, See: Statistics Canada (2024), Estimated gross annual earnings of postsecondary graduates working full time at interview, by province of study, level of study and gender. Table 37-10-0034-01. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3710003401 
38 Other category includes fields such as visual and performing arts, and communications technologies; humanities; agriculture, natural resources and conservation; and personal, protective and transportation services.
39 H‚bert BP, Kevins C, Mofidi A, Morris S, Simionescu D, Thicke M. (2024). A demographic, employment, and income profile of persons with disabilities aged 15 years and over in Canada, 2022. Reports on disability and accessibility in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-654-x/89-654-x2024001-eng.htm
40 Chatoor K. (2021). Postsecondary credential attainment and labour market outcomes for Ontario students with disabilities. Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Retrieved from Postsecondary-Credential-Attainment-and-Labour-Market-Outcomes-for-Ontario-Students-with-Disabilities_FINAL.pdf
41 Bonaccio S, Connelly CE, Gellatly IR, Jetha A, Martin Ginis KA. The participation of people with disabilities in the workplace across the employment cycle: Employer concerns and research evidence. Journal of business and psychology. 2020 Apr;35(2):135-58.
42 Baker PM, Linden MA, LaForce SS, Rutledge J, Goughnour KP. Barriers to employment participation of individuals with disabilities: Addressing the impact of employer (mis) perception and policy. American Behavioral Scientist. 2018 May;62(5):657-75.
43 Government of Canada. Repayment Assistance Plan ? Disability assistance. Repayment Assistance Plan for Borrowers with Disabilities (RAP-D). Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/education/student-aid/grants-loans/repay/assistance/rap/disabilities.html 
44 Government of Canada. Severe and Permanent Disability Benefit - What this benefit offers. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/education/student-aid/grants-loans/repay/assistance/severe-disability.html 
45 Pianosi, Robin, Presley, Laura, Buchanan, Jeannie, L‚vesque, Am‚lie, Savard, Sarah-Anne and Lam, Janet. 2023. ?Canadian Survey on Disability, 2022: Concepts and Methods Guide.? Reports on Disability and Accessibility in Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-654-X2023004. Retrieved from https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.928228/publication.html
46 Pianosi, Robin, Presley, Laura, Buchanan, Jeannie, L‚vesque, Am‚lie, Savard, Sarah-Anne and Lam, Janet. 2023. ?Canadian Survey on Disability, 2022: Concepts and Methods Guide.? Reports on Disability and Accessibility in Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-654-X2023004. Retrieved from https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.928228/publication.html
47 Statistics Canada (2019). Standards, data sources and methods, Statistical classifications Classification of worker ? Employment. Retrieved from https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3VD.pl?Function=getVD&TVD=138483&CVD=138485&CPV=8.2.5&CST=01010001&CLV=2&MLV=2
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